If every dot of the Holy Quran is revelation, why are there variant readings of the Quranic text?

Early in his prophethood, the Holy Prophet ^sas preached only to the Meccans and the Quran was revealed in one mode, the dialect of the Quraish. However, when Islam was accepted by tribes outside of Mecca who spoke in different dialects of Arabic and had different levels of understanding, the Holy Quran was then revealed to the Holy Prophet ^sas in many other modes to accommodate their needs. These modes were referred to as ahruf, which today are often also referred to as qira’at. Many believe that qira’at are distinct from ahruf, that qira’at refer to different modes of recitation within one of the ahruf. In this way, they believe that ahruf are modes of recitation, and qira’at are sub-modes within those ahruf. However, this is nothing more than a speculation of later people. During the transcribing of the Holy Quran in the time of Hadrat Uthman ^ra, the companions were so meticulous that even the differences in alternate spellings of the same word were examined and decided according to the dialect of the Holy Prophet ^sas. Az-Zuhri said:

They differed then with At-Tabut and At-Tabuh. The Quraish said: At-Tabut while Zaid said: At-Tabuh. Their disagreement was brought to Uthman, so he said: “Write it as At-Tabut, for it was revealed in the tongue of the Quraish.” 

(Sunan at-Tirmadhi, vol. 5, Book 44, Hadith 3,104)

If qira’at are incorrectly taken to be different modes of recitation within one harf, then they cannot be considered word for word revelation from Allah Almighty. This is a position that cannot be accepted based merely on the speculation of people who came later. In reality, the ahruf are the only modes of recitation that carry divine authority directly from the Holy Prophet ^sas. Qira’at is simply another word used to refer to the same ahruf.

The primary mode of recitation was the mode of the Holy Prophet ^sas himself, the secondary modes were revealed to accommodate the diverse needs of his followers. Ubay bin Ka‘ab reported that the Holy Prophet ^sas was near the tank of Banu Ghifar that Jibra’il [Gabriel] came to him and said:

“Allah has commanded you to recite to your people the Quran in one mode.” Upon this he ^sas said: “I ask from Allah pardon and forgiveness. My people are not capable of doing it.” He then came for the second time and said: “Allah has commanded you that you should recite the Quran to your people in two modes.” Upon this he ^sas again said: “I seek pardon and forgiveness from Allah, my people would not be able to do so.” He (Gabriel) came for the third time and said: “Allah has commanded you to recite the Quran to your people in three modes.” Upon this he ^sas said: “I ask pardon and forgiveness from Allah. My people would not be able to do it.” He then came to him for the fourth time and said: “Allah has commanded you to recite the Quran to your people in seven modes, and in whichever mode they would recite, they would be right.” 

(Sahih Muslim, Book 6, Hadith 334)

The number seven can be interpreted literally to mean the number “seven,” or metaphorically to mean “many,” according to Arabic idiom. It is possible that seven here means “many,” because there is no evidence that there were specifically seven dialects or variations in Arabic. Also, seven is used to refer to many, whereas the numbers five, six and eight are not. The number of ahruf that were permitted suddenly went from the number four to seven, which indicates that seven can mean “many” in this context.
The secondary modes were revealed to accommodate the difficulties of his newer followers. They accommodated the different dialects of Arabic among the different tribes in Arabia to help in pronunciation, and they acted as a commentary on the primary mode to help in understanding its meanings. The Holy Prophet ^sas met Gabriel and said:

“O Gabriel! I have been sent to an illiterate nation among whom are the elderly woman, the old man, the boy and the girl, and the man who cannot read a book at all.” He said: “O Muhammad! Indeed the Quran was revealed in seven modes.” 

(Sunan at-Tirmadhi, vol. 5, Book 43, Hadith 2,944)

In pronunciation, the differences between the primary mode and the secondary modes are in enunciation to facilitate recitation in different dialects. In meaning, the differences between the primary mode and secondary modes are in similar wording that expands the meaning of the message. The Holy Prophet ^sas said:

Ubay, I was asked to recite the Quran and I was asked: “In one mode or two modes?” The angel that accompanied me said: “Say, in two modes,” I said: “In two modes,” I was asked again: “In two or three modes.” The matter reached up to seven modes. He then said: “Each mode is sufficiently health-giving, whether you utter ‘all-hearing and all-knowing’ or instead ‘all-powerful and all-wise.’ This is valid until you finish the verse indicating punishment on mercy and finish the verse indicating mercy on punishment.” 

(Sunan Abi Dawud, Book 8, Hadith 1,472)

The purpose of the different modes was not just to accommodate dialects, it was also to make it easier to understand the meanings of the primary mode. This is why some companions who were from the Quraish, like Hadrat Hisham bin Hakim ^ra, were taught from the secondary modes.
The secondary modes were revealed towards the end of the prophethood of the Holy Prophet ^sas. This is proven by the fact that the outset of revelation of the different modes is narrated to have taken place near the tank of Banu Ghifar, which was in Medina. This is also proven by the fact that the first time Hadrat ‘Umar ^ra was introduced to the different modes was through Hadrat Hisham bin Hakim ^ra, who accepted Islam at the victory of Mecca in the 8th year Hijri. This shows that the Holy Prophet ^sas started teaching the different dialects when people from all over Arabia started accepting Islam. This also shows that the Holy Prophet ^sas would only recite the primary mode himself; otherwise, Hadrat ‘Umar ^ra, who was one of the closest companions of the Holy Prophet ^sas, would have heard it from the Holy Prophet ^sas himself long before he had heard it from Hadrat Hisham bin Hakim ^ra. The Holy Prophet ^sas only taught the secondary modes to others who needed it for themselves, or who needed to teach them to others. He did not recite the secondary modes himself in his congregational prayers and discourses.

When the companions of the Holy Prophet ^sas were initially
introduced to these different dialects, it created misunderstandings between some of them because some thought that others were reciting the Holy Quran incorrectly. However, under the guidance of the Holy Prophet ^sas, these misunderstandings were removed. ‘Umar bin al-Khattab narrated:

I heard Hisham bin Hakim reciting Surah-al-Furqan during the lifetime of the Holy Prophet ^sas. I listened to his recitation and noticed that he was reciting in a way that the Holy Prophet ^sas had not taught me. I was about to jump over him while he was still in prayer, but I waited patiently and when he finished his prayer, I put my sheet round his neck (and pulled him) and said, “Who has taught you this Surah which I have heard you reciting?” Hisham said, “Allah’s Messenger ^sas taught it to me.” I said, “You are telling a lie, for he taught it to me in a way different from the way you have recited it!” Then I started leading (dragged) him to the Holy Prophet ^sas and said, “I have heard this man reciting Surah-al-Furqan in a way that you have not taught me.” The Holy Prophet ^sas said: “(O ‘Umar) release him! Recite, O Hisham.” Hisham recited in the way I heard him reciting. The Holy Prophet ^sas said, “It was revealed like this.” Then the Holy Prophet ^sas said, “Recite, O ‘Umar!” I recited in the way he had taught me, whereupon he said, “It was revealed like this,” and added, “The Quran has been revealed to be recited in seven different modes, so recite of it whichever is easy for you.” 

(Sahih al-Bukhari, Book 97, Hadith 175)

During most of the prophethood of the Holy Prophet ^sas, there was no need for any secondary modes of recitation of the Holy Quran. The dialect of the Quraish was the primary dialect of the followers of the Holy Prophet ^sas. Later in his ^sas prophethood, the need for secondary dialects arose because most of his new followers spoke in different dialects. However, within two decades after the demise of the Holy Prophet ^sas, circumstances had again changed and the dialect of Quraish became the primary dialect of his followers. The Muslim state had become centralized, and the dialect of the Quraish became mainstream because Muslims of different tribes had begun to interact far more. Mecca had become a center of renewed pilgrimage where more people of all tribes gathered and were familiarized with the dialect of the Quraish. Medina had become the center of education where people came to learn the Quran and its commentary in the mode of the Holy Prophet ^sas. Armies fought under the command of companions of the Holy Prophet ^sas who spoke the dialect of the Holy Prophet ^sas. The dialect of the Holy Prophet ^sas had again become the primary dialect of his ^sas followers.

Tribes in Arabia had previously lived in relative isolation of one another. However, when Arabia was centralized and people of different dialects began interacting with each other far more, they were introduced to the different modes of recitation that they had previously been unaware of. The same type of misunderstandings that had previously happened among the companions of the Holy Prophet ^sas during his ^sas lifetime now started happening among people during the time of Hadrat Uthman ^ra. By this time, people had learned to recite the Holy Quran in the dialect of the Holy Prophet ^sas, and were familiar with the commentary of the primary mode found in the secondary modes. Thus, Hadrat Uthman ^ra, the third of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, ordered that the primary mode once again be made the only mode of recitation among the Muslims. Although the remaining modes would continue to exist, only the primary mode of recitation of the Holy Prophet ^sas would continue to be taught in the mainstream in the form of a standardized manuscript. Anas bin Malik narrated:

Hudhaifa bin al-Yaman came to Uthman at the time when the people of Sham and the people of Iraq were waging war to conquer Arminya and Adharbijan. Hudhaifa was afraid of their (the people of Sham and Iraq) differences in the recitation of the Quran, so he said to Uthman, “O chief of the Believers! Save this nation before they differ about the Book (Quran) as Jews and the Christians did before.” So Uthman sent a message to Hafsa saying, “Send us the manuscripts of the Quran so that we may compile the Quranic materials in perfect copies and return the manuscripts to you.” Hafsa sent it to Uthman. Uthman then ordered Zaid bin Thabit, ‘Abdullah bin Az-Zubair, Sa’id bin al-As and ‘Abdur-Rahman bin Harith bin Hisham to rewrite the manuscripts in perfect copies. Uthman said to the three Quraishi men, “In case you disagree with Zaid bin Thabit on any point in the Quran, then write it in the dialect of Quraish, the Quran was revealed in their tongue.” They did so, and when they had written many copies, Uthman returned the original manuscripts to Hafsa. Uthman sent to every Muslim province one copy of what they had copied, and ordered that all the other Quranic materials, whether written in fragmentary manuscripts or whole copies, be burnt. 

(Sahih al-Bukhari, Book 66, Hadith 9), (Sahih al-Bukhari, Book 61, Hadith 16).

The secondary modes were not erased from history, they were simply removed from the mainstream to avoid being confused with the primary mode. This is similar to how the Holy Prophet ^sas forbade the writing of ahadith during his lifetime so they would not become confused with the Quran. The Holy Prophet ^sas said:

Do not write down anything from me, and he who wrote down anything from me except the Quran, he should efface that, and narrate from me, for there is no harm in it.

(Sahih Muslim, Book 55, Hadith 92)

Afterward, the writing of ahadith was permitted when there was no longer a fear of their being mixed with the Quran. Similarly, Hadrat Uthman ^ra only forbade the use of the different modes for mainstream use and as textbooks. Otherwise, they continued to be preserved and many exist until today.

Just as individual misunderstandings arose among some companions during the life of the Holy Prophet ^sas, such individual misunderstandings arose among some companions after his life as well. Some of the companions had specially been taught the secondary modes by the Holy Prophet ^sas so that they could be teachers to the various tribes of Arabia for whom these modes had been revealed. Although many of the companions of the Holy Prophet ^sas had memorized the Holy Quran in its primary mode, there were a few who were expert reciters of the Holy Quran in its secondary modes. These companions were of special benefit because they could teach the Holy Quran to diverse demographics of Arabs, whereas most of the other companions could only teach the Quran in the mode of the Quraish. Masriq narrated:

I heard the Holy Prophet ^sas saying, “Take (learn) the Quran from four: ‘Abdullah bin Mas‘ud, Salim, Mu’adh, and Ubay bin Ka‘ab.” 

(Sahih al-Bukhari, Book 66, Hadith 21)

After the Holy Prophet ^sas, misunderstandings arose among a few of these companions because they could not let go of their attachment to what the Holy Prophet ^sas had individually taught them. These companions did not understand why the secondary modes were subordinate to the primary mode of the Holy Prophet ^sas himself, and they continued teaching them even when they were no longer needed. Hadrat ‘Umar ^ra, the Second of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, said about Hadrat Ubay:

Our best Quran reciter is Ubay and our best judge is ‘Ali; and in spite of this, we leave some of the statements of Ubay because Ubay says, “I do not leave anything that I have heard from Allah’s Messenger ^sas, while Allah said: ‘Whatever Sign We abrogate or cause to be forgotten, We bring one better than that or the like thereof.’” 

(Surah al-Baqarah, 2:107; Sahih al-Bukhari, Book 65, Hadith 4,481)

Just as some misunderstandings had arisen during the life of the Holy Prophet ^sas, some misunderstandings arose after his ^sas life as well. Among thousands of companions, it was inevitable that human error arise among a few individuals, but the near consensus of the companions of the Holy Prophet ^sas were agreed that the mode of recitation of the Holy Prophet ^sas himself be standardized as the mainstream mode of recitation of the Holy Quran during the time of Hadrat Uthman ^ra. Thus, just as there was one mode of recitation during most of the prophethood of the Holy Prophet ^sas, the recitation was again brought back to the same mode of recitation during the Caliphate of Hadrat Uthman ^ra. The secondary modes exist today, are recited among some Muslims, and at times are referred to when seeking to understand the meanings of the primary mode of the Holy Quran. Hadrat Musleh Mau‘ud ^ra wrote:

It should be remembered that the variations in the qira’at of the Holy Quran has continued from earlier times. Some Muslims who are not completely acquainted with this subject worry sometimes and assume that if these narrations are true, then our claim that the Holy Quran is completely safeguarded from any alternation whatsoever may be incorrect. Forming such a conclusion is wrong. In fact, due to the differences in the languages or to expound on certain subject matters, Allah Ta‘ala has revealed the Holy Quran in “سبعة احرف” (seven dialects); meaning, it has seven forms of recitation. One should not become suspicious, that due to the diversity of recitations there is a form of contradiction in the Holy Quran. Rather, these should be understood as a natural consequence of the variety existing in the languages per se. At times, there is one word pronounced in a particular way by some people residing in one part of the country and which may be pronounced in a complete different way by others who live in another part of the same country. This difference in pronunciation, however, does not denote that the word itself or its meaning has changed. With minute alterations, the word and its meaning remain the same. The change only occurs due to the inability of a nation to pronounce the word in its original way, so they alter its pronunciation according to their own convenience. During the time of the Holy Prophet ^sas, the land of Arabia had a small population and the various tribes residing therein were at far distances from each other, hence their dialects and pronunciations would vary from each other significantly. Although their language was the same, but the pronunciation of certain words was completely different. Every so often, one particular word would give a certain meaning in one tribe yet a different word was used to give the same meaning in another tribe. Considering these circumstances, Allah Ta‘ala permitted the Holy Prophet ^sas to use such and such words for those tribes which were not able to pronounce them properly. Thus, as long as Arabia did not develop into one nation, this very principle remained customary among them. Had they not been permitted to do so, only the residents of Mecca would be able to recite the Holy Quran and all others would have found it quite difficult. This would also cause the Holy Quran to not spread as quickly as it did. This is the reason why different recitations of the Holy Quran have been permitted.

However, once the society became developed reaching a certain standard which was governed by a central authority and everyone was fully acquainted with the language of Hijaz, Hadrat Uthman ^ra rightfully deduced that allowing these many recitations of the Holy Quran would now be only a cause of generating disagreements between the people. Thus, he decided to stop the general spread of these recitations, but they were still preserved in certain designated books. Thus out of a pious intention and in order to unite them under one recitation, he prohibited all other recitations apart from the original Hijazi one and allowed the use of only such copies of the Holy Quran for Arabs and non-Arabs alike that were according to the original recitation.

(Tafsir-e-Kabir, vol. 9, p. 47–51)